Issus

Military History: Alexander the Great

Chapter 4 · The Battle of Issus (333 BCE)

At the Granicus (Chapter 3), Alexander fought Persia's regional governors. At Issus he faced the Great King himself, Darius III, with the main royal army. Darius out-manoeuvred Alexander and got behind him — and then fought on ground so narrow that his greatest advantage, numbers, counted for almost nothing.

Before the Battle

Spring 333 BCE At Gordium, Alexander "solves" the Gordian Knot, said to promise rule of Asia to whoever untied it — in the best-known version, by cutting it with his sword.
Summer 333 BCE At Tarsus, Alexander falls dangerously ill after bathing in the cold river Cydnus, delaying the army.
Autumn 333 BCE Darius assembles a huge army in Babylon and waits on the open plain of Sochoi in Syria, ideal ground for his cavalry.
Early November 333 BCE Alexander marches south along the coast toward Syria. Darius, tired of waiting, crosses the mountains by a northern pass and comes down behind him at Issus, where he kills the sick and wounded Macedonians left there.

Darius Out-Manoeuvres Alexander For once, Alexander was caught by surprise: the enemy was between him and his supply lines. But Darius had left the open plain for the narrow coastal strip, where the space between the sea and the mountains was only about 2.6 km wide. Alexander turned his army around and marched back north to fight there.

The Two Armies, 5 November 333 BCE

	Macedonian army	Persian army
Commander	Alexander	Darius III, in person
Strength	About 37,000, including about 5,100 cavalry	Ancient figures of 250,000–600,000; modern estimates about 50,000–100,000
Centre	The phalanx, facing the river Pinarus	Greek mercenary infantry, with Darius behind them in his chariot
Right	Alexander with the Companion cavalry and hypaspists	Persian infantry, partly on the slopes
Left	Parmenion, with the Thessalian cavalry by the sea	Massed Persian cavalry, facing Parmenion

The Battle

1. The Charge

Alexander led the Companions across the Pinarus against the Persian left, which broke. He then swung toward the centre — toward Darius himself.

2. The Centre Struggles

The phalanx, crossing the river and climbing its steep banks, lost its formation. The Greek mercenaries attacked the gaps, and the fighting was fierce; about 120 Macedonian officers fell here.

3. The Left Holds

By the sea, the Persian cavalry crossed the river and pressed Parmenion hard. The Thessalian cavalry held on long enough for the battle to be decided elsewhere.

4. Darius Flees

As Alexander's cavalry drove toward him, Darius turned his chariot and fled, later leaving it and his weapons behind. When news spread, the Persian army collapsed.

Combined Arms in Action This was the pattern described in Chapter 1: the phalanx pinned the centre, the left flank held, and the Companions delivered the decisive blow. Notice that it only worked because both the centre and Parmenion's wing survived the pressure long enough.

Did Darius Run Too Soon? The Greek and Roman sources, written from the Macedonian side, present Darius's flight as cowardice. That judgement is disputed. A king who was captured or killed would lose the whole war at once; escaping let him raise another army, which he did. Also, much of what we know about Darius comes from people with every reason to make him look weak beside Alexander.

The Aftermath

Outcome	Details
Losses	Ancient writers claim around 100,000 Persians killed, an impossible figure; Macedonian losses were far lower but real
The royal family	Darius's mother Sisygambis, his wife Stateira, and his children were captured in the Persian camp and treated with respect
Treasure	The royal camp was captured, and Parmenion soon seized Darius's war chest and baggage at Damascus

A Famous Story

According to the ancient accounts, when Alexander and his friend Hephaestion visited the captured royal women, Sisygambis bowed to Hephaestion, the taller of the two, thinking he was the king. When she realised her mistake, Alexander is said to have told her not to worry, because Hephaestion "too is Alexander." It may be embellished, but it shows how the tradition wanted Alexander remembered: generous in victory.

Darius Offers Peace

Darius wrote asking for his family back and for friendship. Alexander replied demanding to be treated as lord of Asia. A later offer, made probably while Alexander was besieging Tyre, reportedly gave up all lands west of the Euphrates and a huge ransom. Parmenion is supposed to have said he would accept, "if I were Alexander." Alexander answered that so would he, "if I were Parmenion."

Alexander didn't chase Darius east. Instead he turned south along the coast of Phoenicia, toward the cities that were home to Persia's fleet — continuing his plan to defeat the Persian navy on land (Chapter 3).

Questions to Sit With

Darius's manoeuvre was brilliant, but led him onto the wrong ground. What does that suggest about the difference between strategy and tactics?

Was Darius's flight a failure of courage or a sensible decision? How much does the answer depend on who wrote the sources?

Why do you think Alexander refused Darius's peace offers, when he could have kept half an empire?

Quick Reference — Chapter 4

Before Issus: the Gordian Knot (spring 333 BCE) and Alexander's illness at Tarsus
Darius left the open plain at Sochoi, came down behind Alexander, and forced a battle on a coastal strip about 2.6 km wide
5 November 333 BCE: about 37,000 Macedonians against a much larger Persian army (modern estimates 50,000–100,000)
The Companion charge broke the Persian left and drove at Darius, who fled; the phalanx struggled at the Pinarus and Parmenion held the left
Darius's family was captured and treated with respect; the treasure at Damascus was seized
Darius offered peace, reportedly including lands west of the Euphrates; Alexander refused and turned south toward Phoenicia

What's Next

Chapter 5: The Siege of Tyre (332 BCE).