The Granicus

Military History: Alexander the Great

Chapter 3 · Crossing Into Asia: The Battle of the Granicus (334 BCE)

In spring 334 BCE, with Macedon and Greece secured (Chapter 2), Alexander crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor. The Persian governors of the region chose to fight him at the first good defensive line they could find: the banks of the Granicus River. It was the first of Alexander's three great battles against Persia, and the closest he came to dying in any of them.

The Crossing

The army crossed from Europe into Asia unopposed; Persia's large fleet made no attempt to stop it. The ancient writers describe Alexander visiting Troy, honouring the hero Achilles, whom he claimed as an ancestor, and throwing a spear into Asian soil as a sign that he meant to win the land by conquest. Whether or not every detail is true, the message was deliberate: this was presented as a Greek war of revenge, in the tradition of Homer's heroes.

The Persian Decision

Memnon's Advice

Memnon of Rhodes, a Greek commander serving Persia, urged the satraps not to fight. Instead they should burn crops and villages, leave Alexander's army without supplies, and use Persia's naval strength to carry the war to Greece.

The Satraps' Reply

The satrap Arsites and the others refused to destroy their own lands and subjects' property. They also distrusted Memnon, a foreigner. They chose to defend the line of the Granicus instead.

The Road Not Taken Memnon's strategy might have worked. Alexander's army carried few supplies and he was short of money. Refusing battle and starving the invader is the same kind of strategy Fabius used against Hannibal (Military History: The Romans, Chapter 3) — and, like Fabius's, it was politically unpopular.

The Battle, May 334 BCE

Macedonian armyPersian army
CommanderAlexander, with ParmenionA council of satraps, including Arsites and Spithridates
StrengthModern estimates of the force engaged are around 18,000Ancient figures range up to Justin's impossible 600,000; modern historians favour much smaller numbers, perhaps around 15,000
DeploymentPhalanx in the centre, Companion cavalry on the right, Thessalian cavalry on the leftCavalry lining the steep far bank, Greek mercenary infantry behind them
When Did Alexander Attack? According to Arrian, Parmenion advised waiting until dawn, and Alexander refused, attacking at once across the river late in the day. Diodorus says the army crossed at dawn the next morning without a fight. The two traditions can't both be right, and historians still debate which to believe (see the source table in Chapter 1).
The Cavalry Fight

An advance force was sent into the river first, drawing the Persian cavalry into close fighting on the muddy bank. Then Alexander led the Companion cavalry across, angling against the current, and a fierce cavalry battle followed. The Persians deployed their cavalry, not their infantry, at the water's edge, so the fighting was hand to hand between horsemen, where the Macedonians' lances gave them the advantage.

Alexander Nearly Killed

In the thick of the fighting a Persian noble struck Alexander's helmet with his sword. As the satrap Spithridates raised his weapon to strike from behind, Cleitus the Black, commander of the royal squadron, cut off his arm. Cleitus saved the king's life — a debt that makes his later fate (Chapter 8) all the darker.

Once the Persian cavalry broke, the phalanx crossed. The Greek mercenaries, who had barely fought, were surrounded. Alexander refused them terms, and most were cut down.

The Aftermath

OutcomeDetails
Macedonian lossesAbout 115 killed, according to the ancient figures (probably understated)
Persian lossesSeveral thousand, including many of the commanders
Greek mercenariesAbout 2,000 captured and sent to Macedonia in chains as traitors to the Greek cause
The spoils300 suits of Persian armour sent to Athens, inscribed as won by "Alexander son of Philip and the Greeks, except the Spartans" — a pointed reminder that Sparta had refused to join
  • 334 BCE Sardis, the main Persian centre in western Asia Minor, surrenders without a fight.
  • 334 BCE Miletus is besieged and taken. Alexander then disbands most of his own fleet, too weak to face Persia's and too expensive to keep. His plan: defeat the Persian navy on land, by capturing its harbours.
  • Autumn 334 BCE Halicarnassus, defended by Memnon, holds out through a hard siege; the city falls, but its citadels resist for months.
  • 333 BCE Memnon leads a Persian naval counter-offensive in the Aegean, but dies of illness — removing Persia's most dangerous commander.

Questions to Sit With

Why do you think the satraps chose to fight at the river instead of following Memnon's advice?
Alexander led the charge himself and nearly died. Was this reckless, or essential to how his army fought?
Was defeating a navy by capturing its harbours a clever strategy or a dangerous gamble?

Quick Reference — Chapter 3

  • Alexander crossed the Hellespont in spring 334 BCE and visited Troy, presenting the war as a Greek crusade
  • The satraps rejected Memnon's scorched-earth advice and defended the Granicus River
  • May 334 BCE: Persian cavalry held the bank, Greek mercenaries behind; Arrian and Diodorus disagree on the timing of the attack
  • Cleitus the Black saved Alexander's life by cutting off Spithridates's arm
  • About 115 Macedonians were killed; about 2,000 Greek mercenaries were captured; 300 suits of armour were sent to Athens
  • Sardis surrendered, Miletus and Halicarnassus were besieged, and Alexander disbanded his fleet to defeat Persia's navy on land

What's Next

Chapter 4: The Battle of Issus (333 BCE).