Egypt & Alexandria

Military History: Alexander the Great

Chapter 6 · Egypt & the Founding of Alexandria

After two hard sieges at Tyre and Gaza (Chapter 5), Egypt fell without a battle. Alexander spent the winter of 332–331 BCE there, and it was one of the quietest periods of his campaigns — but it produced two things that lasted: a new city that became one of the great cities of the ancient world, and a claim to divine ancestry that shaped how Alexander saw himself.

A Conquest Without a Battle

An Unpopular Master

Persia had reconquered Egypt only about a decade earlier, in 343 BCE, and its rule was resented. Many Egyptians had no reason to fight for it.

A Satrap Without an Army

The Persian governor, Mazaces, had lost many of his troops, sent north to fight at Issus. With no fleet and no field army, he surrendered Egypt and its treasury as soon as Alexander arrived.

Respecting the Gods

At Memphis, the old capital, Alexander sacrificed to the sacred Apis bull and other Egyptian gods and held Greek games. Egyptian temple inscriptions later gave him the titles of a pharaoh.

Was Alexander Crowned Pharaoh? It's often said that Alexander was formally crowned pharaoh at Memphis. No reliable ancient account describes such a ceremony; the story comes mainly from the later, legendary Alexander Romance. What is certain is that Egyptian priests treated him as a legitimate pharaoh, and he was shown as one in temple reliefs.
The Military Point Egypt finished the plan begun at Miletus (Chapter 3): with the Phoenician ports and Egypt in Macedonian hands, the Persian fleet had no bases left in the eastern Mediterranean and soon broke up. Egypt also brought huge wealth and grain. Alexander now controlled the whole coastline behind him before turning inland.

The Founding of Alexandria, 331 BCE

The Site

West of the Nile Delta, near the Egyptian village of Rhakotis, lay a strip of land between the sea and a large lake, with the island of Pharos just offshore. A causeway to Pharos would create two natural harbours — an idea Alexander had just seen work, in reverse, at Tyre.

The Plan and a Famous Omen

The city was laid out in a regular grid by the architect Dinocrates of Rhodes. The ancient story says that, lacking chalk, the builders marked the outline of the walls with barley meal, and birds came down and ate it. The seer Aristander said this meant the city would feed many people — a flattering reading of what might have seemed a bad sign.

Alexander Never Saw It Built Alexander left Egypt a few months after the founding and never returned alive. The city was built by his governor Cleomenes and then by the Ptolemies, the Macedonian dynasty founded by his general Ptolemy. It became a centre of Greek learning, the home of the famous Library and the Pharos lighthouse — and, eventually, of Alexander's own tomb (Chapter 10).

The Journey to Siwa

Early in 331 BCE, Alexander made a long detour west along the coast and then south across the desert to the oasis of Siwa, home of a famous oracle of the god Ammon, whom the Greeks identified with Zeus.

The Journey

The trip was dangerous: water ran short and guides lost the way. The ancient writers say sudden rain saved the party, and that birds (or, in Ptolemy's version, two snakes) guided them to the oasis.

The Oracle

Alexander went into the temple alone and never revealed what he was told, saying only that he had heard what he wanted to hear. The priest reportedly greeted him as the son of Ammon.

A Possible Slip

Plutarch passes on a story that the priest, trying to speak Greek, meant to say "my son" but slipped and said something like "son of Zeus." It is probably an invention, but it shows ancient writers were already sceptical.

Why Does This Belong in a Military Course? The visit had no military purpose, and it cost weeks. But Alexander's belief in his divine descent grew after Siwa, and it later caused real friction with his Macedonian officers, who resented a king who seemed to be claiming to be more than a man (Chapter 8). How much he truly believed it, and how much it was political theatre for his Egyptian and Asian subjects, is still debated.

Organising Egypt

Before leaving in spring 331 BCE, Alexander divided the government of Egypt among several men, with separate military commanders, garrisons, and a civilian administration. Arrian says he did this deliberately, because Egypt was too rich and easy to defend to trust to any one governor. Then he marched back north, toward the Euphrates and Darius.

Questions to Sit With

Why did Egypt surrender so easily when Tyre and Gaza fought so hard?
Was the journey to Siwa a waste of time militarily, or did it serve a real political purpose?
Why would Alexander split Egypt's government among several men instead of appointing one strong governor?

Quick Reference — Chapter 6

  • Egypt, reconquered by Persia only in 343 BCE, surrendered without a fight; the satrap Mazaces handed over the treasury
  • Alexander honoured Egyptian gods at Memphis and was treated as pharaoh; a formal coronation isn't reliably recorded
  • Taking Egypt completed the plan to defeat Persia's navy by capturing its bases
  • Alexandria was founded in April 331 BCE near Rhakotis and Pharos, planned by Dinocrates of Rhodes; the barley-meal omen story
  • Alexander visited the oracle of Ammon at Siwa and was reportedly hailed as the god's son
  • He divided Egypt's government among several officials before marching north in spring 331 BCE

What's Next

Chapter 7: The Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE).