First Bull Run (1861) & the Real Collapse of "A Quick War"

Military History: The US Civil War

Chapter 3 · First Bull Run (1861) & the Real Collapse of "A Quick War"

After Fort Sumter (Chapter 2), many people on both sides expected one big battle to settle everything. In July 1861 two inexperienced armies met near a small stream in northern Virginia, about 25 miles from Washington. The battle was confused, amateurish, and far bloodier than anyone had imagined — and it ended the idea that the war would be short.

Two Names for One Battle

Bull Run or Manassas? The Union usually named battles after the nearest stream or river; the Confederacy after the nearest town or railroad junction. So this battle is Bull Run (a stream) to the North and Manassas (a railroad junction) to the South. The same pattern gives us Antietam/Sharpsburg in Chapter 5.

Pressure to Attack

"On to Richmond!"

Northern newspapers and politicians demanded a quick advance on the Confederate capital. Many believed one victory would end the rebellion.

90-Day Soldiers

Most volunteers from Lincoln's April call had signed up for only 90 days. Their enlistments were about to run out, so if the army was going to be used, it had to be soon.

"Green Alike"

The Union commander, Brigadier General Irvin McDowell, warned his troops weren't ready. Lincoln reportedly replied that they were green, but the enemy was green too.

McDowell's plan was sound on paper: pin the Confederate army under P.G.T. Beauregard along Bull Run with a frontal demonstration, then send a large column on a long march around its left flank. A separate Union force was supposed to keep a second Confederate army, under Joseph E. Johnston, busy in the Shenandoah Valley so it couldn't join Beauregard.

The Railroad Changes the Battle

Johnston Slips Away

The Union force in the Shenandoah failed to hold Johnston in place. Johnston moved much of his army to Manassas Junction by railroad, with some of his troops arriving during the battle itself. It's regarded as the first time railroads were used to move troops to a battlefield in a way that decided the outcome. McDowell's own slow advance gave Johnston the time he needed.

A Preview of the Whole War Chapter 1 noted the North had more than twice the South's railroad mileage. Bull Run shows why that mattered: railroads let armies move faster than marching men, and whoever used them better could concentrate force where it was needed. Railroads return again in Chapter 8, when Sherman sets out to destroy the South's.

The Battle: 21 July 1861

  • Morning The Union flanking column crosses Bull Run upstream and drives back the Confederate left. Things are going McDowell's way.
  • Midday Confederate troops fall back to Henry House Hill, where Brigadier General Thomas J. Jackson's Virginia brigade holds firm.
  • Afternoon Fighting swirls around the hill. Two Union artillery batteries are pushed forward, and a Confederate regiment dressed in blue is mistaken for friendly troops long enough to overrun them.
  • Late afternoon Fresh Confederate brigades, including Johnston's arrivals, counterattack. The exhausted Union line starts falling back — and then breaks.
"Standing Like a Stone Wall" Confederate General Barnard Bee is said to have rallied his men by pointing at Jackson's brigade and shouting that Jackson was "standing like a stone wall." Jackson became "Stonewall" Jackson for the rest of his life. But Bee was mortally wounded soon afterward, and his exact words were only reported second-hand. Some historians have suggested he may even have meant it as criticism — that Jackson was standing still instead of coming to help. We can't know for sure.
Blue and Grey Weren't Standard Yet Early in the war, uniforms were a mess. Some Union regiments wore grey, some Confederate regiments wore blue, and flags looked similar in battle smoke. The mistake that cost the Union its guns on Henry House Hill was a direct result. Standard colours and distinct battle flags — such as the Confederate battle flag — came partly out of confusions like this one.

The Retreat

The Union withdrawal began in reasonable order but turned into a panic. When a wagon was overturned on the bridge over Cub Run, blocking the road, frightened soldiers abandoned equipment and fled toward Washington. Civilians who had driven out from the capital to watch the battle, including members of Congress, got caught up in the rout; one congressman was captured.

Union (McDowell)Confederate (Beauregard & Johnston)
Present in the areaAbout 35,000About 32,000
Actually engagedAbout 18,000About 18,000
KilledAbout 460About 390
WoundedAbout 1,120About 1,580
Missing / capturedAbout 1,310Few
Why the Confederates Didn't Take Washington The Confederate army was almost as disorganised by victory as the Union army was by defeat. It was short of supplies, had no fresh troops, and faced heavy rain the next day. Washington's defences were also stronger than the panic suggested. Some Southerners later argued the war was lost that evening by not pursuing; most historians think a pursuit was never realistic.

What Changed

A Long War

Lincoln signed bills calling for 500,000 more volunteers, this time for three-year terms. The North began preparing for a long, organised war rather than one campaign.

McClellan Arrives

McDowell was replaced by George B. McClellan, who turned the beaten troops into a trained, disciplined force: the Army of the Potomac. His caution in using it becomes a problem in Chapter 5.

Southern Confidence

The victory made many Southerners overconfident, reinforcing the belief that Northern soldiers wouldn't fight hard — a belief the next four years disproved.

Bull Run Wasn't the Only Front At the same time, the Union was putting in place a much slower plan to squeeze the South economically: blockading its ports and seizing the Mississippi. That strategy, mocked at first as the "Anaconda Plan," is the subject of Chapter 4.

Questions to Sit With

McDowell's plan was reasonable, but his army lost. How much of the defeat was the plan, and how much was inexperience?
Why might it be useful for a nickname like "Stonewall" to become fixed, even if we can't be sure what Bee meant?
Did losing at Bull Run actually help the Union in the long run? Consider what it forced the North to do next.

Quick Reference — Chapter 3

  • First Bull Run (Union name) / First Manassas (Confederate name), 21 July 1861, about 25 miles from Washington
  • Political pressure ("On to Richmond!") and expiring 90-day enlistments pushed McDowell to attack with an inexperienced army
  • Johnston moved troops by railroad from the Shenandoah Valley to the battlefield — the first decisive use of railroads in battle
  • Jackson's brigade held Henry House Hill and he earned the name "Stonewall," though Bee's exact meaning is uncertain
  • Confusing uniforms helped Confederates capture Union guns; a late Confederate counterattack broke the Union army, whose retreat became a rout
  • About 18,000 engaged on each side; roughly 460 Union and 390 Confederate killed; the Confederates were too disorganised to pursue
  • Afterward Lincoln called for 500,000 three-year volunteers and put McClellan in command

What's Next

Chapter 4: The Anaconda Plan: The Real Union Naval Blockade Strategy.