The Settlers
The Story of Old English
Course 1 · Chapter 2 · The Settlers
Old English came to Britain with Germanic-speaking settlers in the fifth century. The old story says they arrived in one great invasion. The sources are more mixed than that, and scholars still disagree about how many people came. This chapter sets out what the sources say and where they differ.
Who were they?
According to Wikipedia's Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain article, the settlers were Germanic speakers from the continent, and their language, Old English, was closely related to Old Frisian. The sources name Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, but the article treats those names with caution. It says early arrivals were probably soldiers recruited by the Roman administration, and that larger numbers came in the early fifth century.
What the old sources say
No one wrote a full account of the settlement at the time. The sources come later, and the article lists them:
| Source | Date (as given) | What it says (per the article) |
|---|---|---|
| Chronica Gallica of 452 | reports 409 or 410, and 441 | Saxon raids in 409 or 410; for 441, British provinces handed to the rule of the Saxons |
| Gildas, De Excidio | probably early 6th century | The earliest account of Saxon settlement: Saxon foederati invited by a Romano-British "proud tyrant", a revolt over unpaid supplies, and a later British victory at Badon |
| Procopius | 6th century | Britain settled by Angles, Frisians and Britons, each with its own king; no Saxons or Jutes mentioned |
| Bede | 8th century | Builds on Gildas and adds Hengist and Horsa, Vortigern, and three peoples: Angles, Saxons and Jutes; the article calls his account "semi-mythical" |
Wikipedia's Anglo-Saxons article adds that Bede dated the invitation to 450 to 455, while the Historia Brittonum gives 428 and the Chronica Gallica gives 441, and that archaeology points earlier. It notes the historian Guy Halsall's suggestion that Gildas has been misread and the invitation may date from the late fourth century. So 449 is not the only date, and scholars disagree on it.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle gives a version for the year 449. A passage from it is read line by line in Old English Reading 1, Chapter 5 (the Chronicle text as printed on Wikisource, Plummer's 1892 edition). In it the English come from three peoples of Germany. I did not read the settlement article's discussion of the Chronicle, and the part I read did not mention the date 449.
The old picture, and the doubts
The Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain article describes the traditional account as a single coordinated invasion after Roman rule ended (it gives 411), followed by conflict between pagan Anglo-Saxon and Christian Celtic kingdoms, with the Britons displaced or converted. It says modern scholars see this as questionable.
What archaeology shows
- Roman material culture collapsed around 400.
- Cremation urnfields, furnished burials, Germanic-style metalwork and sunken-featured buildings suggest migration from north-western Germany.
- But field systems and settlement patterns show continuity with Romano-British land use.
- Isotope and skeletal studies at sites such as West Heslerton and Eastbourne suggest the migrants included men and women, and mixed cemeteries suggest intermarriage.
What genetics shows, and what is disputed
A 2022 study of 460 ancient genomes, described in the same article, found that 25 to 47 percent of the DNA of present-day English people comes from early medieval arrivals from northern Europe. In eastern England, early medieval individuals derived up to 76 percent of their ancestry from that population. One of the study's authors, Duncan Sayer, is quoted as saying "You can't argue with [mass migration] any more". Susan Oosthuizen disputed this, arguing that the study did not show unusual migration in the fifth and sixth centuries. The article also notes that some scholars question whether genetic patterns can be equated with ethnic or cultural identity.
| Question | Range or view given |
|---|---|
| How many migrants? | Estimates run from 20,000 to 200,000; one view puts them at 10 to 20 percent of the population |
| Mass migration or elite takeover? | Scholars now broadly agree on mass migration in the south-east and elite dominance in the north and west; genetic data is still interpreted differently |
| Did Britons survive? | Yes: the article cites intermarriage, and some royal names that are British, such as Cerdic, who may have been a native Briton |
Why the language changed
The same article says Old English has few Brittonic loanwords, and that most English place names are Old English or Old Norse, with Brittonic names common in the west and north but rare in the south-east. It says later law codes show the Britons had lower status, and that this may have encouraged assimilation. It also records that the last Brittonic-named Wessex king died in 689. The Brittonic loanwords and place names are the traces of Chapter 1 of this course.
Wikipedia's Anglo-Saxons article says Old English supplies over 80 percent of everyday English words, though under 26 percent of the total vocabulary.
"Anglo-Saxon" and "English"
The Anglo-Saxons article says "Anglo-Saxon" is a modern scholarly compound, first recorded by continental scholars in the mid-eighth century. Bede preferred "Angles" or "English", and that term became dominant. Alfred took the title Anglosaxonum Rex in the late 880s, and Irish and Welsh speakers went on calling the English "Saxons".
Words to know
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| foederati | Soldiers settled in a region under an agreement with the Roman government (my gloss of the word the article uses) |
| Isotope study | A test on bones or teeth that can show where a person grew up |
| Old Frisian | The closest relative of Old English among the surviving Germanic languages (per the article) |
| Anglosaxonum Rex | "King of the Anglo-Saxons", Alfred's title in the late 880s |
✏️ Try It Yourself
Think of the answer first, then click to check.
1. Which three peoples did Bede name?
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Angles, Saxons and Jutes.
2. Who is the earliest writer the article names for the Saxon settlement?
Show answer
Gildas, in De Excidio, probably early in the sixth century.
3. Why is 449 only a traditional date?
Show answer
The sources disagree: Bede gives 450 to 455, the Historia Brittonum 428, the Chronica Gallica 441, and archaeology points earlier.
4. Which language is the closest relative of Old English, according to the article?
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Old Frisian.
5. What did the 2022 study of 460 ancient genomes find?
Show answer
That 25 to 47 percent of present-day English DNA comes from early medieval arrivals from northern Europe, up to 76 percent in eastern England; another scholar disputed what it shows about the fifth and sixth centuries.
6. What does the evidence of mixed cemeteries suggest?
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Intermarriage between migrants and local people.
7. Is Old English full of Brittonic loanwords?
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No: the article says it has few, and that most English place names are Old English or Old Norse.
8. What does the 80 percent figure mean?
Show answer
Old English supplies over 80 percent of everyday English words, though under 26 percent of the total vocabulary.